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The three essential steps of carrageenan extraction using the UAE method are algae pretreatment, carrageenan extraction, and carrageenan purification ( Youssouf et al., 2017). The pretreatment process was started by incubating dried seaweed ( K. alvarezii) in an 80% ethanol solution at room temperature overnight. The pre-treated seaweed was then filtered before being subjected to an ultrasound at 150W for 15min to extract the carrageenan. The movement of ultrasonic waves mediates the extraction process, which results in the transformation of ultrasonic waves into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy then ruptures the cell wall, reducing particle size as a result of the rupture and releasing the carrageenan from the cell wall ( Nigam et al., 2022). Following the extraction process, the carrageenan was available in the form of a solution, and any remaining algal residues were removed using a hot filtering process. It was necessary to place the filter at 4°C for several hours to obtain carrageenan extract in the form of a gel, and gel carrageenan was frozen and lyophilized to obtain the final carrageenan powder ( Youssouf et al., 2017). Ultrasounds allowed for the extraction of 50–55% of carrageenans from red seaweeds such as K. alvarezii and E. denticulatum in 15min, and a longer ultrasonic treatment (30min) may not result in a higher extraction yield ( Youssouf et al., 2017; Azis, 2019). Factors Affecting Carrageenan Yield and Production Souza RB, Frota AF, Silva J, Alves C, Neugebauer AZ, Pinteus S, Rodrigues JAG, Cordeiro EMS, de Almeida RR, Pedrosa R, Benevides NMB (2018) In vitro activities of kappa-carrageenan isolated from red marine alga Hypnea musciformis: antimicrobial, anticancer and neuroprotective potential. Int J Biol Macromol 112:1248–1256 Andriamanantoanina H., Chambat G., Rinaudo M. (2007). Fractionation of extracted Madagascan Gracilaria corticata polysaccharides: structure and properties. Carbohydr. Polym. 68, 77–88. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2006.07.023 [ CrossRef] [ Google Scholar]
Periyasamy C, Anantharaman P, Balasubramanian T, Subba Rao PV (2014) Seasonal variation in growth and carrageenan yield in cultivated Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty on the coastal waters of Ramanathapuram district, Tamil Nadu. J Appl Phycol 26:803–810 The presence of epiphytes in seaweed production is a common occurrence, but they can become a significant issue that reduces seaweed productivity ( Lüning and Pang, 2003; Vairappan, 2006; Hurtado et al., 2007). Sargassum polycystum is one of the most common epiphytes attached to seaweed thalli, exacerbating biomass loss in coastal farms ( Aslan et al., 2020). Several other epiphytes isolated from the K. alvarezii seaweed included Entheromorpha intestinalis, Ceramium sp., Neosiphonia apiculata, Chaetomorpha crassa, Hypnea sp., and Gracilaria sp. ( Mulyaningrum et al., 2019). It has been demonstrated that epiphytes cover the surface of seaweed thalli, considerably reducing nutrient absorption ( Wakibia et al., 2006; Vairappan et al., 2007). According to Aeni et al. (2019), the combined effects of “ice–ice” disease and epiphyte development decreased the growth rate during K. alvarezii cultivation in southeast Sulawesi. Mulyaningrum et al. (2019) compared healthy seaweed to infected seaweed and discovered that healthy seaweed had a higher carrageenan yield and gel strength than infected seaweed. In many cases, the epiphyte was more prevalent and occurred more frequently in conjunction with “ice–ice” disease ( Vairappan et al., 2007, 2010; Eranza et al., 2017).
A kappa-iota hybrid carrageenan provides advantages of both types with high gel strength and water-binding with low syneresis. Applications in the food industry and regulatory status All three carrageenan forms have stabilizing properties in the presence of casein and whey protein. Carrageenan derived from Eucheuma spp. (today one of the main cultivated sources of carrageenan), known as gusô or tambalang in the Visayan languages, has also been traditionally used as food in the Philippines. They were first recorded in the Diccionario De La Lengua Bisaya, Hiligueina y Haraia de la isla de Panay y Sugbu y para las demas islas (c.1637) of the Augustinian missionary Alonso de Méntrida (in Spanish). In the book, Méntrida describes gusô as being cooked until it melts, and then allowed to congeal into a sour dish. [16]
Hurtado AQ, Gerung GS, Yasir S, Critchley AT (2014) Cultivation of tropical red seaweeds in the BIMP-EAGA region. J Appl Phycol 26:707–718 When it comes to extracting carrageenan, alkaline treatment is often utilized, and the effectiveness of this procedure is heavily reliant on the type of alkaline solution used. This approach was initially developed for the algae Chondrus crispus; however, it is now applicable to all types of algae. Jönsson et al. (2020) recently reviewed this method and published its schematic protocol. In addition to being known as “refined carrageenan,” the original carrageenan is recovered by extracting carrageenan from cleaned and washed seaweed using hot alkaline solutions at temperatures ranging from 95 to 110°C. When a solution such as sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, or potassium hydroxide is added to the seaweed extract for many hours, depending on the kind of seaweed species and size of extraction scales, an alkaline atmosphere can be created ( Mishra et al., 2006). Afterward, the residual seaweed matrix that did not dissolve is removed, resulting in a carrageenan solution that is more concentrated than before. The carrageenan may then be precipitated in one of two methods, depending on how much carrageenan is needed. The first method involves the addition of alcohol (mostly isopropanol), while the second involves the formation of gel in a potassium chloride solution (known as the “gel press process”; Lipnizki, 2010). The alcohol-precipitation method can be used to purify all types of carrageenans; however, the gel extraction method can only be used for κ-carrageenan ( FAO, 2014). Squeezing or freeze-thawing are used to remove the remaining water from the gel after being gelled in the gel press procedure. As a result, the gel press product often has higher potassium chloride concentrations than the alcohol precipitated product. After the carrageenans have precipitated, they must be dried, pulverized, and redissolved to obtain a clear solution of purified carrageenan. Terho TT, Hartiala K (1972) Method for determination of sujphate content of glycosaminoglycans. Anal Biochem 41:471–476 Although the National Organic Program (NOP) had added carrageenan to its National List of additives allowed to be included in organic foods in 2003, [24] and reviewed and reauthorized it in 2008, [25] noting it as "critical to organic production and handling operations", [26] on November 18, 2016, the NOP's National Organic Standards Board (NOSB) voted to recommend carrageenan be removed from the National List of additives allowed in organic food production. [27] Ohno M, Nang HQ, Hirase S (1996) Cultivation and carrageenan yield and quality of Kappaphycus alvarezii in the waters of Vietnam. J Appl Phycol 8:431–437
Products with carrageenan may be labeled as “natural,” but limited studies show that carrageenan may promote or cause:
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